As with any referencing system, it is important to remember that this is an entire system of organizing the practical elements of your paper. That means there are specific ways to number your pages, create your title page, and establish headings, in addition to citing material from other authors. Always check with your professor to find out how closely he or she wants you to follow these guidelines.
For complete guidelines for APA format, see: American Psychological Association (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.
1. Formatting
Margins:
- Use 1-inch margins for all four sides of your paper.
Font and Spacing:
- Times New Roman or Courier in 12 pt. font are typically used. Times New Roman is usually expected at the university level.
- Double space your paper. Remember, when you double space a paper, you do NOT need to leave an extra line between paragraphs.
- Left align all of your text.
Paper Size:
- Use 8.5 by 11-inch paper.
Page Header or Running Head:
The APA standards require a running head for professional papers but not for student papers. Check with your instructor to determine whether you are to follow the professional or student requirements.
A page header, or running head, is a shortened title that appears on every page of your essay. The shortened title should help your readers understand what your paper is about in 50 characters or less.
Use the “header” function in your word processing program to create this. The shortened title should be left aligned and typed in UPPERCASE LETTERS while the page number will be right aligned in the header.
2. Major Sections of an APA Paper
Your essay’s sections will include at least the Title Page, Body, and References. If your instructor requires you to follow the APA’s professional (rather than student) standards, you must also include an Abstract.
i. Title Page
(a) Student Version:
- Title of the paper
- Your name
- The name of your university
- Course number and course name
- Instructor’s name
- Assignment due date
(b) Professional Version:
- Running head
- Title of the paper
- Your name
- The name of your university
- Author note
The running head (if required) will be placed in the header. On your cover page, it should begin with “Running head:” and then the shortened title in UPPERCASE LETTERS.
Running head: TITLE OF YOUR PAPER
On all other pages of your essay, you will not include “Running head:”.
TITLE OF YOUR PAPER
Centre the rest of the information on your title page and type in the same font as the rest of your paper. The title, your name, your university’s name, your course code and name, the instructor’s name, and the due date will appear on separate lines respectively. Use regular font formatting (no boldface or italics).
ii. Abstract
If an Abstract is required, it should appear on page two of your essay. The title “Abstract” should be centred on the first line of this page. Use regular font formatting (no boldface or italics) for this title.
In the next line, provide a 150 to 250-word summary of the key points of your research. Include your research question, methods, results, and conclusions. Do not indent your abstract.
iii. Body
The body of your essay presents your research and analysis divided into sections. One example of a paper format (well suited to quantitative papers) is as follows:
- Include the running head (if required) in the header.
- Centre the title of your paper in the next line in bold with regular font formatting.
- Indent the next line by 0.5 inches (e.g. by using the tab key). Begin writing your introduction. There is no need to use the heading “Introduction”.
- Bold and centre the word “Method”. Do not number your headings.
- Indent the next line by 0.5 inches and write your method.
- Bold and centre the word “Results”.
- Indent the next line by 0.5 inches and write your results.
- Bold and centre the word “Discussion”.
- Indent the next line by 0.5 inches and write your discussion.
Depending on the contents of your paper, you can also use headings to organize each of the body sections. There are five levels of headings. Each level is formatted differently. Undergraduate papers seldom need more than 3 levels of headings.
One Level:
- Centre, Bold, and Write in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level.
Method: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level. The contents of this section will be about the method of the experiment.
Two Levels:
- Centre, Bold, and Write the First Level in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level.
- Left align, Bold, and Write the Second Level in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the second level.
Method: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level. The contents of this section will be about the method of the experiment.
Field Work: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the second level. The contents of this section will be about the field work involved in the method of the experiment.
Three Levels:
- Centre, Bold, and Write the First Level in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level.
- Left align, Bold, and Write the Second Level in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the second level.
- Left align, Bold, and Write the Third Level in Italics and in Uppercase and Lowercase Letters.
- Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the third level.
Method: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the first level. The contents of this section will be about the method of the experiment. Field Work: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the second level. The contents of this section will be about the field work involved in the method of the experiment. Study Area Details Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the third level. The contents of this section will be about the study area details of the field work. Study Area Details: Indent 0.5 inches and write the content for the third level. The contents of this section will be about the study area details of the field work.
iv. References
Include a list of references at the end of your essay. This provides all the publication information for the sources you cite in the body of your essay. Every source you cite must be included in your reference list. Personal communications may be cited but should not be included in your reference list. Personal communications include emails, texts, interviews, and lectures (among other things) that cannot be recovered, or accessed, by the reader. Generally, material from lectures that have not been posted by the instructor may be cited as personal communications but should not be included among the references at the end of the paper.
The References page must be separate from the rest of your essay. Centre the title, “References”, in bold (no italics or quotation marks).
Consult sample entries for references in the Common Entries in a Reference List at the end of this handout.
3. In-Text Citations
Did you use someone else’s information or ideas in your paper? You need to give them credit by using an in-text citation.
The APA format uses an author-date method for citing sources in the body of an essay. In other words, when you quote, paraphrase, or refer to another text, you must include a reference to the source's author's last name and year of publication.
For some in-text citations, you need only the author's last name and the year of publication. If you quote a source directly, you must also include the page number for the reference.
Short Quotations:
If the quotation is less than 40 words long, it should be incorporated into your text and enclosed by double quotations marks [“ ”]. If possible, introduce your short quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author’s name followed by the publication date in parentheses. For example:
Scott (2016) concludes, “changes in elearning beliefs and practices typically occur following critical unmet expectations” (p. 596).
If you do not name the author in your signal phrase, you must include that information in your parenthetical citation immediately following the quotation. For example:
A recent longitudinal study in an Australian university found that “changes in elearning beliefs and practices typically occur following critical unmet expectations” (Scott, 2016, p. 596).
Put the citation in the same sentence in which the quotation appears.
Long quotations:
Quotations that are over 40 words long must be placed in the paper as a block of text set apart from the rest of the paragraph. Block quotations should start on a new line, with the whole block indented 0.5 inches from the left margin, and double spaced. Do not use quotation marks. Your citation should come at the end of the quotation:
A novel observation about university teachers was made: This study found when critical unmet expectations occur, teachers reflect on their beliefs and practices, and consider alternatives. However, teachers have sets of beliefs and practices, only some of which they wish to change in specific contexts…teachers altered their practices for different units of study according to their beliefs about those contexts, rather than overarching beliefs. (Scott, 2016, p. 595)
Paraphrase and Summary:
When you paraphrase or summarize another source, you must acknowledge that source. If you paraphrase a claim that is made on a specific page in the source, then it is helpful to include a page number in your citation.
Scott (2016, p. 596) suggests that teachers change their teaching practice in response to unexpected student behaviours.
Common Types of In-Text Citations
Work by Two Authors:
Name both authors. Use the word “and” if the authors are named in a signal phrase in the text, but use the ampersand [&] if they are named in parentheses.
With signal phrase
According to Eom and Ashill (2018), their holistic model of e-learning success shows that learning outcomes heavily depend upon dialog and self-regulatory behaviours (p. 63).
Without signal phrase
The study concludes that its holistic model of e-learning success shows that learning outcomes heavily depend upon dialog and self-regulatory behaviours (Eom & Ashill, 2018, p. 63).
Work by Three or More Authors:
Use the first author’s last name and the phrase “et al.” in the signal phrase or in the parentheses.
With signal phrase
The study by Islam et al. (2015) concludes that learning style and culture, e-learning pedagogy, technology, technical training, and time management are the five major challenge areas higher education institutions need to address (p. 109).
Without signal phrase
Learning style and culture, e-learning pedagogy, technology, technical training, and time management are the five major challenges higher education institutions need to address (Islam et al., 2015, p. 109).
Work with an Unknown Author:
Use the title of the source. Make sure you properly format the title. The titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined. The titles of chapters, articles, and web pages are put in quotation marks.
The international trade of waste electronics is illegal under the terms of the Basel Ban (“Briefing Paper,” 2007).
Work by an Organization or Agency:
Use the organization's name as if it were an author.
With signal phrase
The Canadian International Development Agency (2006) notes that . . .
Without signal phrase
Since 1996, Canada's budget for international development has increased by 10% (Canadian International Development Agency, 2006).
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year:
Use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to distinguish between entries.
Smith’s study (2007a) suggests that…
Lecture Notes:
Type 1: If you cite lecture content based on notes that you or another student has written, cite the lecture content as personal communication. For example, if the lecturer’s name is E. Khoo, the citation would take the following form: “(E. Khoo, personal communication, October 30, 2019).” Even when personal communications are cited, they are not to appear in the Reference List.
Type 2: If you cite lecture notes or slides that were posted online by the instructor, cite the posted content as follows: “(Khoo, 2019.” There must be a Reference List entry corresponding to this cited source. (See “References” section [below] for full citation.)
Works by Authors with the Same Last Name:
Use the first initial of the author.
Gender performance can be understood as a series of actions that produce the illusion of a stable gender identity (J. Butler, 1990). Lilith is saved by an alien species called the Oankali (O. Butler, 2005).
Two or More Works in the same parentheses:
Separate each entry with a semi-colon. List the entries in alphabetical order.
… as many theorists have noted (Morris, 1992; Razack, 2005).
Secondary (or Indirect) Sources:
When you need to use a source cited in another source, name the original in your signal phrase and include the secondary source in both your in-text citation and your references list. Include the primary source’s year of publication if you know it. If you have not, yourself, directly consulted the primary source, do not include it in your reference list (even if you cited its year of publication).
Dorosz (1973) argues that . . . (as cited in Smith, 2008, p. 123).
4. References
Your essay must include a separate References page.
The rules for basic entries are as follows:
- Alphabetize the entries based on the last name of the first author • Provide the last name and initials for every author
- Double space the entries with a 0.5 inch hanging indent for all lines after thefirst one of each entry
- Organize works by the same author by their year of publication
- Italicize book and journal titles
Book - Single author:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Name of Publisher.
Blume, J. (2003). Tales of a fourth grade nothing. Scholastic.
Book – Two authors:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Name of Publisher.
Gaiman, N., & Pratchett, T. (2006) Good omens: the nice and accurate prophecies of Agnes Nutter, witch. HarperTorch.
Book – Three to five authors:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Name of Publisher.
Adams, M. P., Urban, C. Q., El-Hussein, M., Osuji, J., & King, S. (2017). Pharmacology for nurses: a pathophysiological approach (2nd Canadian ed.). Pearson Canada.
Journal Article – Single author:
If an item has a DOI, include it at the end of the item’s reference entry (even if you consulted the item only in print and not online). Example:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of article. Journal Title, volume(issue number if applicable), page range. DOI
Hunter, D. R. (2001). Retrospective and prospective validity of aircraft accident risk indicators. Human Factors, 43(4), 509-518. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872001775870412
If the item has no DOI and you consulted the item online, then include the item’s URL in place of a DOI. Example:
Wessel, R. D. Identifying as a College Student with a Disability: From the Editor. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 32(1), 5-6. https://www.ahead.org/professionalresources/publications/jped/archived-jped/jped-volume-32
If the item has no DOI and you consulted the item in print, then omit the URL and end the reference entry with the page range.
Journal Article – Multiple authors:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of Publication). Title of article. Journal Title, volume(issue number if applicable), page range. DOI
Clark, A. E., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A. (2008). Relative income, happiness, and utility: an explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95-144. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.1.95
Chapter in edited book:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page range). Name of Publisher.
Allsopp, J. F. (1976). Criminality and delinquency. In H. J. Eysenck & G. D. Wilson (Eds.), A textbook of human psychology (pp. 241-253). MTP Press Limited.
Entire Edited Book:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Eds.). (Year of publication). Title of work. Name of Publisher.
Eysenck, H. J., & Wilson, G. D. (Eds.). (1976). A textbook of human psychology. MTP Press Limited.
An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of Section. In B. B. Author, Title of book (pp. page range). Name of Publisher.
Mazer, A. (2001). Introduction. In L. M. Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables (pp. i-iv). Scholastic.
Abstract:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of article [Abstract]. Journal Title, volume(issue number if applicable), page range.
Hunter, D. R. (2001). Retrospective and prospective validity of aircraft accident risk indicators [Abstract]. Human Factors, 43(4), 509-518.
Reference Book with no author:
Title (ed.). (Date). Name of Publisher.
Concise rules of APA style (6th ed.). (2010). American Psychological Association.
Review of a Book:
Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of review [Review of the book Book Title, by B. B. Author, & C. C. Author]. Journal Title, volume(issue number if applicable), page range.
Pursell, D. P. (2015). Review of Calculations in chemistry: An introduction [Review of the book Calculations in chemistry: An introduction, by D. J. Dahm, & E. A. Nelson]. Journal of Chemical Education, 92(8), 1286-1287.
Article in Newspaper:
Last name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Title, pages.
Ngabo, G. (2017, May 6). Young runners show how kids can make a difference. Metro Toronto, p. 7.
Online Newspaper Article:
Last name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Title. URL
Kilgannon, C. (2020, January 14). Why a water main break flooded the subway. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/14/nyregion/water-main-break-pipes.html
Motion Picture:
In place of an author’s name, provide at least the director’s name. Other contributors may also be named (as in the following example).
Producer, A. A. (Producer), & Director, A. A. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Film]. Studio or distributor.
Nishimura, Y. (Producer), & Takahata, I. (Director). (2013). The tale of Princess Kaguya [Film]. Studio Ghibli.
Television Series:
Producer, A. A. (Producer). (Years of initial broadcast). Title of television series [TV series]. Studio or distributor.
Brooker, C. (Producer), & Jones, A. (Producer). (2011-2019). Black mirror [TV series]. Endemol UK.
Single Episode of a Television Series:
Writer, A. A. (Writer), & Director, A. A. (Director). (Date of initial broadcast). Title of episode (Season number, Episode number) [TV series episode]. In A. Producer (Producer), Series title. Studio or distributor.
Des Hotel, R. (Writer), Batali, D. (Writer), & Semel, D. (Director). (1997, March 31). Never kill a boy on the first date (Season 1, Episode 5) [TV series episode]. In J. Whedon (Producer), Buffy the vampire slayer. 20th Television.
Electronic Sources: References
The following information is based on the APA's 2020 modifications of rules governing the documentation of electronic sources.
- Generally, online articles follow the same rules for printed articles. For example, if an online journal has volume and issue numbers, then you should include that information in your entry.
- Retrieval dates are necessary only for sources that are likely to change (institutional websites, Wikipedia, Merriam-Webster.com, etc.). Online periodicals are unlikely to change once they are published, and so retrieval dates are not necessary.
- URLs often change, so you should try to include a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in your entry. Many publishers include DOIs on the first page of a document.
Facebook Posts:
Travel advice from the Government of Canada. (2020, January 20). If you try to travel internationally with #cannabis products in your possession, you could face serious criminal penalties both at home and outside of Canada: http://ow.ly/Bkex50xZYn9 [Photo with link attached]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/travelGoC/posts/1691849677624175:0
Twitter Tweets and Instagram Posts:
Pacheco-Vega, R. [@raulpacheco]. (2020, January 21). Mental and physical, home and office "spring cleaning" and a conversation about habits [Link attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/raulpacheco/status/1219660930163924992
UWindsor [@UWindsor]. (2020, January 21). Panel at #UWindsor to explore public safety, security, and surveillance [Photo with link attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/UWindsor/status/1219619558945968128
Bailao, A. [@anabailaoto]. (2019, December 10). Today, the Planning and Housing Committee will consider the Housing TO 2020-2030 ten year Plan that will bring a rights-based [Infographic]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/B55gCqnhD-T/
*Notice that in the above social-media entries, only the first 20 words of the post are used.
Blog Posts:
Cokelet, B. (2020, January 21). Conversations from Beyond the Grave? The Ethics of Chat-bots of the Dead. PEA Soup. http://peasoup.us/2020/01/conversations-from-beyond-the-grave-the-ethics-ofchat-bots-of-the-dead/
Comments on Blog Posts (include the first 20 words of the comment):
Maudlin, T. (2018, February 3). The main point of my post is to provide a fundamental division into three types of “interpretation” derived from the [Comment on the blog post “Interpretive cards (MWI, Bohm, Copenhagen: collect ’em all)”]. Shtetl-Optimized. https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=3628#comment-1752437
English Jerk. (2011, August 15). Another question we might raise is the one Meillasoux opens his interesting book After Finitude with: If we accept that [Comment on the blog post “Reading the Critique Part Fifteen”]. The Philosopher’s Stone. https://robertpaulwolff.blogspot.com/2011/08/reading-critique-part-fifteen.html
YouTube Videos:
CHOICE Media Channel. (2019, October 25). What’s New in APA Style—Inside the Seventh Edition of The Publication Manual of the APA [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/jOVZp8m0PCM
Podcast Episodes:
Quintana, D., & Heathers, J. (Co-hosts). (2019, January 21). Open peer review (No. 76) [Audio podcast episode]. In Everything Hertz. SoundCloud. https://soundcloud.com/everythinghertz/episode-76
Online Lecture Notes:
Khoo, E. (2019, October 2). [Lecture notes on synthesis and academic integrity]. Centre for Teaching and Learning, University of Toronto Scarborough. https://q.utoronto.ca/courses/109256/modules/items/802830
More resources for citations and research
Do you want to discuss your research paper? Book an appointment with an Instructor: http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/appointments-undergraduate.
Check out these resources to get more help and information on citations and research:
Reference and Research Help – University of Toronto Mississauga Library https://guides.library.utoronto.ca/ReferenceUTML/ReferenceUTML
Citing Sources – University of Toronto https://guides.library.utoronto.ca/citing
APA Formatting and Style Guide – Purdue Online Writing Lab https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ Looking for more learning strategies? Visit us at: http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/.
Looking for more learning strategies? Visit us at: http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/.